Inter-cultural and cross-cultural management Essay Example

Inter-cultural and cross-cultural management Paper This paper is about the development of a deep understanding of the concepts of international business and global management by giving a broaden exploration of inter-cultural and cross-cultural management and the idea of doing business across cultures. The paper presents a brief commentary on the broad range of issues facing firms doing business across cultures and, in particular, the obvious differences observed or/and encountered in doing business in United States as opposed to doing business in Europe-including some cross-cultural communication issues, management development issues, interacting with American customers and ethical issues. In fact, this document attempts to compare how business is done in the US to how business is done in Europe. The paper borrows mainly from Elishmawi (2001), Francesco Gold (2005) and from several other sources that are indicated at the end of this document in the List of References. 2. Managing Cross-Cultural Differences in International Business Elishmawi (2001), Czinkota et al (2002), and Mead (2004) claim, separately, that as companies become increasingly global, clashes between managers of different cultures are occurring with greater and greater frequency. Many of these clashes could be avoided if people were simply more aware of how people from other cultures perceive them and how those cultures differ from one another. Two distinct tasks become necessary: First, to understand cultural differences and the ways they manifest themselves, and, second, to determine similarities across cultures and exploit them in strategy formulation. Success in new markets is very much a function of cultural adaptability: patience, flexibility, and appreciation of others beliefs. We will write a custom essay sample on Inter-cultural and cross-cultural management specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Inter-cultural and cross-cultural management specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Inter-cultural and cross-cultural management specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Laroche (1999) and Elishmawi (2001) warn that differences in approaches, values and expectations between customers, suppliers and team members with different cultural backgrounds have lead to many projects failures. Laroche (1999) insists that miscommunication across cultural lines is usually the most important cause of cross-cultural problems in multinational projects. Elements of culture are language (verbal and non-verbal), religion, values and attitudes, manners and customs, material elements, aesthetics, education and social institutions. Different scholars, including Laroche (1999), Elishmawi (2001), Czinkota et al (2002), and Francesco Gold (2005) agree on six fundamental patterns of cultural differences: Different communication styles, different attitudes toward conflict, different approaches to completing tasks, different decision-making styles, different attitudes toward disclosure, and different approaches to knowing. They give some guidelines for inter-cultural success: learn from generalizations about other cultures, but dont use those generalizations to stereotype, write-off, or oversimplify your idea about others. Practice, practice and practice; that is the first rule in order to get a better cross-cultural communication. Dont assume that there is one right way (yours!! ) to communicate or to do business. Dont assume that breakdowns in communication occur because other people are on the wrong track. Listen actively and empathetically. Try to put yourself in the other persons shoes. Use this as an opportunity to develop an understanding from the other point of view. Remember that cultural norms may not apply to the behavior of any particular individual. We are all shaped by many, many different factors. Be aware of possible current power imbalances-and have openness to hearing each others perceptions of those imbalances. It is necessary to understand each other to work together. 2. 1 National Culture, Attribution and Ethics: Gopalan Thompson (2003) assert that cross-cultural management researchers have observed that when presented with similar ethical dilemmas, managers raised in different cultural environments exhibit divergence in their perceptions, interpretations, and eventual solutions. Cross-cultural management scholars have noted that managerial values, beliefs, norms, and attitudes are impacted by national culture causing managers to conceptualize human natures, relationship to natures, work, time, inter-personal relationships, space, and language very differently (Adler 1986, Hofstede 1993, and Francesco Gold 2005). It works as follows: Source: Figure 1: Gopalan Thompson 2003, page: 314 2. 2 What international business managers should do: International business managers should understand that cultural competence must be recognized as a key management skill. Cultural incompetence, or inflexibility, can easily jeopardize millions of Euros or dollars through wasted negotiations, lost purchases, sales, and customers; and poor customer relations. Cultural risk is as real and vital as commercial or/and political risk during expansion and beyond expansion of international firms. Ethical issues are differently perceived from one culture to another. And ethical issues may really affect business and other management aspects. 3. Psychological Contracting and Human-Resource Development. Sparrow 1998 explores the role of human-resource development managers in defining and maintaining employees psychological contracts. This approach has received a great attention, mostly in US and UK, because it was discovered that cross-cultural differences in HRD processes are associated with contracting. Studies of the psychological contract tend to raise as many questions about the dynamics of employee behavior as they answer. And, they provide a good tool for understanding the management of workforce across cultures. Failure to insure internal work cohesion may destroy any firm. Rousseau 1990 defines the psychological contract as the set of expectations held by the individual employee that specifies what the individual and the organization expect to give and receive in the working relationship. Contracts are open-ended agreements concerned with the social and emotional aspects of exchange between employer and employee. They represent a set of unwritten reciprocal expectations. And, they are viewed increasingly as deep drivers of motivational theories because changes in the contract are assumed to have implications for employee behaviors in response to organizational attempts to manage careers, rewards, and commitment. Therefore, the issue for HRD practitioners is no longer just one of managing careers, but one of dealing with breaches in the psychological contract (Rousseau, 1995). 3. 1 . The Psychological Contract in its Broader Social Setting: Rousseau 1995 claims that the impact of national culture and institutions would be normally equated to the notion of social contract. However, even at the individual level, the content of psychological contract and the management frames of reference that create, socialize, sustain, or breach it clearly bear an impact of each societys social contract. 3. 2 . Cross-Cultural Differences: Lachman (1997) demonstrates how culture acts as an explanatory factor. His work gives a proof that Sparrows approach is scientific and that the contracting model and concept deserves our serious attention. And that the same approach can be applied even to any other business management across-cultures. Comparative HRD academics draw attention to some marked social differences in the expected attractiveness of the concept. There are three most distinctive European Management Models: Anglo-Saxon, French and Germanic. To a common perceived threat, the main European national business systems will follow different trajectories of response. Sparrow 1998 asserts that within Europe, the strong and culturally distinctive (homogeneous) management models in France, Germany, and Scandinavia stand opposed to the Anglo-Saxon model. The Anglo-Saxon model would include UK, US and Canada. However, example e in 5. 1 (Kim Samuel Johnson of Canada) demonstrated that we must be careful because there exist differences within the Anglo-Saxon countries, themselves. In fact, as Elishmawi (2001) advises us clearly, there are no two identical business models between two countries. Some brief examples: 1. Scholars, including Elishmawi (2001) and Sparrow (1998) claims that in the US and UK, management is seen as essentially an interpersonal task focusing on getting things done. In rejection of elitism, people are seen as having primary importance as individuals. Personal experience rather than experience codified in the national culture forms the basis of effectiveness and performance. 2. Lawrence (1993) argues that German managers have difficulty with the idea that management is something that can be analyzed and generalized across the whole firm. So, they do not manage in general, but are instead seen to manage something. They like formal authority and value very mach technical competence and functional expertise. 3. Sparrow (1998) sustains that French organizations are staffed by a highly bright cadre of technical experts and are managed by the application of rationality. They apply less charisma, pugnacity, capacity to communicate and motivate. 3. 3 Recommendation to International Managers There are different and distinctive management models within Europe, itself, and between Europe and US. Furthermore, the internal efficiency of Argogen Biotech SA may be weakened if managers and workers in the new markets are not on the same wavelength. The firm should take those differences into consideration when expanding. The French model will never work in US, if unchanged and re-adapted. It would not work in the rest of Europe, England, Japan or Canada, either. 4. Different National Cultures and Diversity Francesco Gold (2005) assert that some countries, such as the United States, have a long history of dealing with people who are different, and as a highly individualistic country, US values these differences. Other countries, such as Japan, have been isolated from other cultures, and today are relatively homogeneous. Elishmawi (2001) notes that doing business with Europeans requires many skills: proper etiquette, a keen business sense, and the ability to read nuances of verbal and nonverbal communications, to name a few. In addition, the diversity of European cultures forces the foreign businessperson to acquire skills they possibly never had before. It might seem for many that dealing with all Europeans is the same. It is definitely not however, as for example, French, German, British, Italian, Swiss, Dutch cultural values are very distinctive. Strangely, for example, Americans, French and Russians highly value self-reliance, while Germans, Swiss and Spanish place high emphasis on reputation! Thus, when dealing with Europeans, it is useful to be aware they are various. 4. 1 Recommendation to International Managers: The firm Leadership needs to know that the perception of diversity in each of its new foreign markets is different. Failing to make required strategic arrangements to utilize diversity as a competitive advantage may end up with considerable losses of money, time and deals for the firm. In the United States, there are fundamental traditions of valuing equality and equal opportunity. And, although relationships among members of different racial and ethnic groups have not been always harmonious-and are not even today-law, social, and corporate policies over 50 years have made numerous attempts to address equity and diversity issues. So, the US legal system has more experience in dealing with racial and ethnic issues than most of European countries. 5. Doing Business with Americans and Expanding into US Market Elishmawi (2001) finds that since the end of the Second World War, US have played an important and influential role in the development of the global economic system. Consequently, American cultural values are prevalent throughout the globe, and countries and cultures that have wanted to do business with or compete against American companies, have sometimes found it necessary to adopt American business culture values and norms. Elishmawi (2001) argues that doing business with Americans, however, or adopting American methods of conducting business, is not always easy. Czinkota et al (2002) assert that the significant importance of the US economy and the subsequent respect for the US economic model has been accompanied by a corresponding fall-off in the efforts by US companies and their managers to understand and respect other ways of conducting business. Misled by the sense that the world is becoming even more American and reassured by the increasingly universal ability of counterparts to speak English, many US managers do not fully comprehend how cultural misunderstandings can sour relationships and sabotage deals.

Theories of Human Development

Theories of Human Development Free Online Research Papers When referring to epigenetic theory, it is a relatively new theory that focuses on the genetic origins and how they are affected by the interactions with the environment. This theory is based on the fact that over time environmental forces will impact the expression of certain genes. The theory believes that each human has a genetic foundation that is unique. Environment is very important and may cause a person to follow one path or another from their genetic bases, depending upon conditions. On the other hand, the environmental theory removes the genetic factor. This theory believes that a child is a product of direct interaction with their environment. Proponents of the environmental theory believe that children learn best through repetition and memorization. Psychoanalytical Theory (Freud) This theory describes the developmental process as an unconscious act. Freuds theories dealt with how the human mind works; while concluding that behavior is determined by powerful inner forces, most of which are buried in the unconscious mind. Thus, the unconscious plays a major role in shaping behavior. He also concluded that the unconscious is full of memories of events from early childhood. Freud believed that humans need for the basic necessities of life, food, shelter, and warmth. Fulfilling these instincts, through development, becomes the foundations for human sexuality.Sigmund Freuds Psychoanalytic Theory has been one of the most influential theories of our time. It breaks the human personality down into three critical parts: Id, Ego and Superego.The Id is the most basic part and is present at birth. The Id functions with the pleasure principle and tends to be a little animalistic. It can be irrational and illogical. The Ego works to maintain or control the Id. It operates o n the reality principal and tries to keep the Id straight. The Ego makes a person have rational and realistic thoughts while interacting with others. The Superego is the conscience. It contains the principles and ideals of society. The Superego operates on idealism. Its goal is to inhibit the desires of the Id and convince the Ego to work towards more moral goals rather than realistic ones. Behaviorist Theory (Watson) Watson believed that psychology needed to focus on measurable variables in order for it to progress. He also felt that one’s environment was the factor behind development with no thought of the subconscious. The behaviorist theory teaches us that we learn based on how we interact with our environment. It also explains that the decisions we make in our environment have direct consequences, whether good or bad, and these consequences will affect our decision making capabilities. The environment in which one was placed was the â€Å"cause in behavior†. The behavoristic approach has had a strong influence on psychology. The basic ideas of behaviorism are: human behavior is a product of the stimulus response interaction and that behavior is modifiable. The behavorist believe behavior should be explained in terms of environmental stimuli. Behaviorists are not interested in unconscious motives for behavior. They see learning as progressing in a continuous manner, rather than i n a sequence of stages, as in psychoanalytical theory. The process of learning by association, according to behaviorist theory, is called classical conditioning. Operant Conditioning Theory The second type of conditioning is operant conditioning, which is learning from the consequences of behavior. Skinner believed that the best way to understand a behavior is to look at the causes of the action and its consequences; which is operant conditioning. Skinners most well known contribution to behaviorism was his findings to do with behavior and the effect of reinforcement on responses and the role of operant conditioning in learning. The main assumption that Skinner’s theory is based on is that human behavior follows ‘laws’ and that the causes of human behavior is something in their environment. He came up with consequences that shows how behavior can be reinforced to make it more or less frequent, or even extinct. It is basically learning from the consequences of our behavior which are positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, and punishment. The nature of the consequences determines the likelihood of the particular behaviors reoccurrence. In other words, if our behavior results in something positive (positive reinforcement), the chance that the behavior will repeat itself increases. If our behavior results in something negative, the consequence decreases the chance of it happening again. Social learning theory (Bandura) Albert Bandura is considered the leading proponent of this theory. Social learning theory incorporates aspects of behavioural and cognitive learning. While rooted in many of the basic concepts of traditional learning theory, Bandura believed that direct reinforcement could not account for all types of learning. Behavioural learning believes that a persons surroundings cause people to behave in certain ways. In addition, social learning theory outlines three requirements for people to learn and model behaviour include attention: retention (remembering things observed), reproduction (ability to duplicate the behaviour), and motivation (positive/negative influences) to want to adopt the behaviour. His theory added a social element, arguing that people can learn new information and behaviors by watching other people. Known as observational learning (or modeling), this type of learning can be used to explain a wide variety of behaviors. Cognitive theory (Piaget) Cognitive theory is a learning theory that attempts to explain human behavior by understanding the thought process focusing on the individuals thoughts. It is believed that these thoughts determine an individual’s emotions and behaviors and therefore personality. The cognitive theorists believe that we could have no emotions, no behavior and would not function without our thoughts. The thoughts always come before any feeling and any action. The cognitive theorists believed that we can change our mood, decrease our anxiety and improve our relationships if we change our thoughts. The assumption is that humans are logical beings that make the choices that make the most sense to them. The processing of information or â€Å"Information processing† is a commonly used description of the mental process, comparing the human mind to that of a computer.Cognitive theory largely rejects behaviorism on the grounds that it reduces complex human behavior to simple cause and effect. Humanism (Maslow) Abraham Maslow believed that people have certain needs that have to be met in an order. These needs include basic needs, safety needs, love and belonging needs, achievement needs, and finally, self actualization. One would not be able to progress fully to the next stage if its predecessor wasnt completely fulfilled. In addition, from a learning theory point of view, humanism emphasizes that perceptions are centered in experience, as well as the freedom and responsibility to become what one is capable of being. The humanist theory believes in the power of the self-directed adult. Humanism believes learning occurs primarily through reflection on personal experiences. Humanism also believes in doing everything you do for yourself not just for a reward. According to humanists we have choices and responsibilities. This veiw argues that you are free to choose your own behavior, rather than reacting to environmental stimuli and reinforcers. Issues dealing with self-esteem, self-fulfillment, and needs are paramount. The major focus is to facilitate personal development. Stages of moral development (Kohlberg) Many of our inner standards take the form of judgments as to what is right and what is wrong. They mold the moral and ethical principles by which we live by and guide our conduct. While studying, Kohlberg observed that moral growth and development precedes through stages such as those of Piagets stages of cognitive development. He hypothesized that moral growth begins at the beginning of life and continues until the day one dies. He also believed that people progress through each stage of moral development consecutively without skipping or going back to the previous one. Moral reasoning, which is the basis for ethical behavior, possess six developmental stages that responds to the stage before it. These stages are: Obedience and punishment orientation, self- interest orientation, interpersonal accord and conformity, authority and social-order maintaining orientation, social contract orientation, and universal ethical principles. Research Papers on Theories of Human DevelopmentThree Concepts of PsychodynamicEffects of Television Violence on ChildrenGenetic EngineeringRelationship between Media Coverage and Social andThe Relationship Between Delinquency and Drug UseBionic Assembly System: A New Concept of SelfIncorporating Risk and Uncertainty Factor in CapitalInfluences of Socio-Economic Status of Married MalesStandardized TestingThe Project Managment Office System

Attention And Change Detection Psychology Essay

Attention And Change Detection Psychology Essay In recent years psychological literature has focused on attention and change detection. This paper examines the several key phenomena that comprise this process. Essentially the premise asserts that we do not see or detect everything that takes place in front of our eyes. Change Detection is based upon two key phenomenon: (1) Inattentional blindness and (2) Change blindness. Attention has become more intensively studied in recent years because of its links to cognitive psychology and neuroscience. The paper demonstrates the practical application of attention and change detection from the lens of psychology. Research has indicated that in order to see change you must pay attention to it. (Rensink, R.A. 2002). CONCEPT OF ATTENTION Attention may be defined as a subject area within the field of cognitive psychology. As such it refers to a process about targeted information within our environment. It is the concept of awareness of those things that are taking place around you via our sen ses of sight, sound and sensation. It was the philosopher and Psychologist William James who placed this into better perspective by stating attention is to take control of our mind; the ability to assimilate several objects at the same time and the ability to filter out certain elements to focus on those that matter. (Anderson, J.R. 2004) Attention is therefore a cognitive process that facilitates concentration whilst being enabled to filter out non-relevant subject matter. In recent years this has received intense research interest within the fields of cognitive psychology and neuroscience. Specific attention being focused on sources of the signals i.e. sensory neurons and relationships between other cognitive functions like memory and vigilance. It has also been linked to the two key phenomena of inattentional blindness and change blindness. Attention has been widely studied in school and educational settings looking at the behavioural patterns of children. (Chavajay, P. 1999) ina ttentional blindness we are overloaded with lots of different stimuli working simultaneously and as such we cannot be aware of all of them. (Pashler, H.E. 1999) inattentional blindness One of the most famous tests for inattentional blindness was the invisible gorilla test. This was carried out by two researchers from the University of Illinois and Harvard University. The participants were asked to study a video clip of a basketball game and to focus on the number of times the ball was passed i.e. Ground and aerial passes. The two groups of people wore black and white T shirts to differentiate themselves. During the clip a woman passes through the scene wearing a gorilla costume . After viewing the partiicipants were asked if they noticed anything out of the ordinary and in most groups 50% of the subjects claimed not to have seen the gorilla. The participant’s attention was focused upon counting the complex number of passes and screening out those stimuli considered distracti ng to the focused effort. (Choi, C.Q. 2013)

Future Developments of Power Electronics Devices and its Applications Essay

Future Developments of Power Electronics Devices and its Applications - Essay Example Based on wide band gap (WBG) semiconductor materials such as Silicon Carbide and Diamond, power electronics could up the efficiency and reliability of the next generation electric grid, as they are able to route power more quickly and handle high voltages (Perret, 2009). They can operate at higher temperatures and have relatively low thermal resistance thereby allowing for better cooling.This kind of strength gives them an edge over other electronic devices made for the same function.If successful, the semi-conductor technology will improve performance of power electronic applications such as electric vehicles and motor drives and also lower their costs. They will facilitate greater adoption of the vehicles and as a result reduce U.S oil imports, and this gesture would result to a stable economy in the country (Sira and Silva-Ortigoza, 2006). More efficient power electronic systems could lead to lower electricity consumption reducing harmful related emissions as well as less energy u se saving many families and business owners a lot of money spend on power bills.In conclusion, power electronics semi-conductor devices are the next big breakthrough in power electronics and upon their successfully being inculcated in the electric grid, they will result in energy saving as well as environmental conservation through reduction of energy related emissions that are harmful. They however face the challenge when it comes to designing new device types to exploit these devices. A lot of research needs to be done on it to ensure success.â€Æ'

Virtual Cemetery Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Virtual Cemetery - Essay Example It is clear that members of the family were buried at a common ground. In addition, the graves of the people that belonged to a given family preferred to design their graves using the same materials, same shape, same size and the same design, it shows the commonness among the people of the family and their uniformity. This in most cases acted as a form of identity to a certain family. For instance, the Comings family that consisted of Lydia, Benjamin, Samuel and Josiah, all had identical graves. This shows the preference of a given family having identical graves. Hereunder is the clear data about the people, their ages, sex, date of death, the type of grave one was buried in, material used to make the graves, design of the grave, the condition of the grave, and the size of the grave and little in formation of concern (Dethlefsen and Deetz 1996). Gravestone design Shape Size Material Condition Design Biography Demography Gravestone design Surname First name(s) Sex Birth Date Death dat e Age Type Shape Size Material Condition Design Comment Hallet Warren M 1791 8th Feb 1811 20 H D S Tall Slate G U & W Hamblen Cornelius M 1752 30th May 1811 59 H D S Tall Sandstone F U & W Howes Ebenezer M 1737 20th Feb 1811 74 Ob SDWC Tall slate P U & W Lombard Caleb M 1736 14th Dec 1811 75 H D Tall marble P U & W Rich Rabeccca F 1742 18th Oct.1811 69 M DISC Tall Marble F M Bangs Benjamin M 1758 9th March 1814 56 Ob D Tall granite F U & W Gray Elizabeth F 1774 16th May 1814 40 H GDWC Short Slate E U & W Hamblen Ruth F 1755 20th Sep 1814 59 H DISC Tall Marble P Ch Knowles Elizabeth F 1738 29th June 1815 77 M DISC Tall Sandstone P Ch Rich Isaac M 1756 29th June 1815 59 P D Short Slate F U & W Atkins Silas M 1742 17th April 1816 84 M D S Short Slate F U & W Burges Thomas M 1748 11th Feb 1816 68 M D S Tall Slate G P Higgins Joseph M 1771 2Oth Nov.1816 45 Ob S D Tall Sandstone P U & W Snow Tamsin M 1811 11th April 1816 5 H D Tall Sandstone G M Collins Marcey M 1814 15th May 1817 3 H SDW C Tall Sandstone G U & W Collins Mary F 1794 20th Oct.1817 23 P GDWC Short granite P U & W Gross Thomas M 1740 17th May 1817 77 P Rectangular Tall granite F R Snow Mary F 1793 9th sept 1817 24 H SDWC Tall Sandstone F M Stevens Levi M 1747 16th March 1829 82 H S D Tall Granite G P Sears Elizabeth F 1782 24th Aug 1829 47 H S D Tall granite P U & W Comings Samuel M 1807 July 1829 22 H S D Tall granite p U & W Comings Benjamin M 1817 1839 22 H S D Tall granite p U & W Comings Josiah M 1810 1810 0.33 H S D Tall granite P U & W Comings Lydiah F 1826 1826 0.08 H S D Tall granite P U & W Damon Judy f 1750 19th Nov 1828 78 H S D Tall granite P U & W Coan Betsy f 1794 12th Dec 1821 27 P Rectangular Tall marble F Ch Hallet Charles m 1751 15 Nov 1821 70 Ob DISC Tall granite F U & W Hallet Elizabeth f 1732 9th March1821 89 H S D Tall granite F U & W Smith John C m 1783 4th Oct.1811 28 H S D Tall Marble F U & W Rider Ruth f 1791 6th Sep.1812 21 Ob Round Gothic arc Tall Granite p P Hall Bethiah f 1763 27th Sep 1813 50 H Rectangular Tall Sandstone p M Gray Elizabeth f 1774 16th May 1814 40 Oth Sharp Gothic arc Tall Sandstone f M The grave forms a sharp arch at the top and its tall. Rich Richard m 1739 1813 74 H S D Tall Sandstone f M Bangs Benjamin m 1758 1814 56 Ob Gothic discoid with caps Tall Sandstone f M Knowles Elizabeth f 1738 1815 77 Ob Gothic discoid

Gambino cleaning products salesman Essay Example for Free

Gambino cleaning products salesman Essay Description of the proposed system Description of the problem A new system of calculating and reporting on cleaning products salesmen is to be designed and implemented. Cleaning products salesmen commission is based on a set of data which is the monthly sales of cleaning products sold by the salesmen. Objectives The new system must: Â  Be automated as far as possible, needing no thorough knowledge of spreadsheets, databases or any other software in order to operate it. Â  Have fitted controls to ensure precision and completeness of data input. Â  Take into account commission payments from monthly sales. Print commission reports for each of the salesmen, and a summary report showing total paid to each salesman and overall total. Include an option to delete commission records previous to a given date so that the file does not increase for an indefinite period. The proposed new system can be shown in a level 0 data flow diagram as follows: A level 1 Data Flow Diagram of the proposed system is as follows: User functions 1. The Commissioning Salesman in the Sales Department will be responsible for entering all details of new cleaning products salesman and new products. 2. An Accounts clerk will have special responsibility for the commission system. 3. The Accounts clerk will enter each month the sales of each product, giving quantity sold and gross sales value (i. e. quantity X cover price). 4. Every 6 months, the Accounts clerk will produce the Commission reports for each cleaning products salesman. This will show the commission that has been earned in the previous 6 months. A payment is then recorded and a cheque issued to each cleaning products salesman to whom commission is due, together with the Commission statement showing sales details, and the statement from the Accounts system the total amount due. Database specification Menu structure The many functions of the Commission System will be accessed by means of a front-end menu, which will have the following structure. The data model There are three main entities in this system related in the entity relationship diagram shown below. Because a many-to-many relationship cannot be applied in a relational database, an additional entity named Salesman/Product is introduced. The ERD can now be drawn as follows: The database for Gambino cleaning products salesman system specification will have the following tables: tblSalesman (SalesmanID, Surname, FirstName). Foreign key in tblSalesman/Product ProductName Text (40) Product title tblProduct SalesTeam Text (40) All salesman who sell a product tblProduct Price Currency Product price tblProduct StandardCommission Number Percentage commission on each product sold 1-10 tblSalesman/Products BonusCommission Number Bonus percentage commission on each products sold 11-20 tblSalesman/Products SalesNumber Number 1=Standard commission 2=Bonus Commission 1 or 2 tblSales QuantitySold Number Number of products sold tblSales GrossValue Currency Data Dictionary Input Specification Three input forms will be required. frmProducts. This will be used to enter product details. frmSalesman This will be used to enter details of a salesman and all products on which they receive commission. The commission percentages for each product will be entered in a subform of the main form. Validation methods: The Product ID will be selected from a drop-down list of existing Product IDs. Once a Product ID is entered, the product name will be automatically displayed. frmTransaction This form will be used to enter transactions. Validation methods: Only valid dates will be accepted. The Product ID will be selected from a drop down list of existing Product IDs. Once a Product ID is entered, the product name will be automatically displayed. Selecting a radio button so that only a valid alternative can be selected will choose the transaction type. Process Specification Commission Calculations To calculate the commission for a given transaction, a query has to be performed to combine attributes from tblTransaction, tblProduct, tblProduct/Salesman and tblSalesman. The calculation of the commission is performed as follows: If TransactionType = 1 (i. e sales) ThenRate = StandardCommissionRate ElseRate = BonusCommissionRate endif Amount = Rate * GrossValue. These processes will be carried out in qryCommission. This query will be the source of both the commission report and the summary report. Maintenance Each year, transactions prior to a given date will be removed from tblTransactions. This prevents the transaction file from becoming too large and slowing down the system. The maintenance will be carried out as follows: Run a Delete query to delete records from tblTransaction. Test Plan Tests will be carried out using valid and invalid data and data at the extremes of acceptable values. The following test data will be used. tblSalesman Salesman ID Surname Firstname STEVED Stevens David. Test urpose Expected result 1 Select enter data from main menu, then select Products. To check if the menu options work and that a Products form opens at a new record. Products form opens at a new record. 2 Enter data from test data set. Try entering an invalid date i. e. 3/9/2001 To check the menu options work and that the Salesman form opens at a new record. Salesman form opens at a new record. 3 Select Enter Data from Main menu and then select Salesman. To check if the menu options work and that the Salesman form opens at a new record. Salesman form opens at a new record. 4 Enter data from test data set. To check if valid data is accepted. All valid data accepted. 5 Try entering product ID of BB113. Test that no product can be entered unless it exists on product table. Record rejected. 6 Select Enter Data from Main menu and select Sales To check the menu options work and that the sales form opens at a new record. Sales form opens at a new record. 7 Attempt to enter a new sale with date 3/9/2001 To test if date is validated. Error message will appear on leaving field. 8 Select reports from Main menu then select Product details. Test to see if the Product details display all products entered. All products appear on the report. 9 Select report from the Main menu then select Commission report. Check to see if Commission report details are correct. User is asked to enter start and end dates for report. All commission is calculated correctly. 10 Select Reports from Main menu the select Summary report. Check that Summary report is correct. User is asked to enter start and end dates for report. All totals are calculated correctly. 11 Add 2 transactions for dates in 1999. then select Maintenance from Main menu and identify deletion of records prior to 31/12/1999 Check that Maintenance option deletes records prior to date user enters. The two records are deleted from table. 12 Add a transaction for 31/12/1999. then select Maintenance from Main menu and identify deletion of records prior to 31/12/1999. Check that maintenance option deletes records for date user enters. The record is deleted from table. 13 Select Exit from Main menu To check if the main menu option works correctly. Database closes. Development Plan The planned schedule for development is given below. Week beggining Task Comments 29/01/2004 Detailed design spec 29/01/2004 Tables created 01/02/2004 Input forms created 15/02/2004 Queries and reports created Reports on products and salesman 21/02/2004 Standard commission report created 27/02/2004 Procedures for clearing file developed Clearing records prior to given date 29/02/2004 Testing and modifications 03/03/2004 Testing and modifications 06/03/2004 Documentation 08/03/2004 Installation and entry of master file data. A period of parallel running will follow with reports produced from old and new systems. Conclusion The system will be implemented by Microsoft Access 2000. It will run on any existing PC. The database will be accessible from any of the Departments which are responsible for keeping the data up to date. These departments include Accounts and Sales departments. The system is expected to be tested and installed by the end of April 2004. Sunit Dhadra 12K AVCE ICT AVCE ICT Unit 1 Sunit Dhadra 12K AVCE ICT.

Natty Dreadlocks The Study of the Youth Black Faith and the Bobo Dreads

Natty Dreadlocks The Study of the Youth Black Faith and the Bobo Dreads The most outstanding characteristic of the Rastafarians is then- hair. Although other people view dreadlocks as disgusting, smelly, and as a symbol of craziness, the Rastas see the dreadlocks as part of who they are and what they stand for. The longer and more developed their dreads are represents their status and their faith. They think of their hair as a crown, like the crown of their king, Halle Selassie, or to the main of the lion symbolizing male strength. The Rastas' crowns let people know they are rebelling against oppression and do not want to"fit in"with the people that view them as freaks. They started this trend to go against organizational life and challenge the social and religious norms that were implicated at the time. The Youth Black Faith and later the Bobo Dreadlocks made great contributions to implementing the Dreadlock trend and helped break away from the oppression they endured. In the late 1940's, five brethren, guided by their love for the Rastafarian doctrine. got together to start what would become the Youth Black Faith. These five leaders held their own on the streets. They called themselves Brother Taf, Pete, Brother Firsop, Badaman and Watson. Kingston was expanding rapidly due to peasants leaving the rustic for urban poverty. Back-o-Wall had already entered into Ackee Walk next to the large May Pen cemetery and stretched farther south all the way to the seaside except for an intervening portion that the water commission owned. In Trench Town, also, slums filled up the area with footpaths and alleyways connecting them. It was at one of these slums in Trench Town, Ninth Street to be exacts that Brother Taf and Pete lived. ... ... to Walter Rodney , Africa World Press Inc., 1987 Chevannes, Barry, Rastafari : Roots and Ideology Hausman, Gerald, the Kebra Negast - The-Book-of-Rastafarian Falth--from Ethiopia and Jamaica , St. Martin's Press, 1997 Internet [precise URLs may be in error due to translation, and they are not the fault of the author. -Editor] Jamaica atlas : http: //WWW. t Urknet. coin/ at I as/ 9 7 august/_I am at ca/page2. htni I The Bobo Dread: Beliefs and Rituals : littp:/'/www.envirolink.org/oneworlct/t'OCLts/ettopla/rasta3.litinI Dread History : 'The African Diaspora, Ethiopianism, and Rastafari littp://editcate.si.edLL/nllgrations/rasta/pic I O.html The Bobo Dread : Relations with the Outside littp: /'/www. etiviro link. org/oneworld/t'OCLIs/etiopia/rasta 1. litral The Bobo Dread : littp: //www. envirolik. org/oneworld/ t'OC US/eti Opt a/rasta. htm I

Philadelphia’s 1793 Yellow Fever: Narrative of the Proceedings of Black People Essay

The 1793 yellow fever outbreak was a national problem. At this time the United States Capital was located in Philadelphia, PA. This essay will focus on the outbreak in Philadelphia, PA, particularly how a few different views of the African American community played a role. During this terrible time thousands of local residents fled Philadelphia, including prominent members of government such as the first United States President, George Washington along with many other community members. A local paper had an ad looking for people of color to help attend to the sick. The ad also assured those helped would not get sick ,and would be compensated. Responding to this ad was Absalom Jones and Richard Allen. Both men were leaders in the African American Community as well as free men. Fast forward to the details of what happened during this period. There were multiple theories as to the cause of the outbreak. Who could or couldn’t contract the disease was unclear as well. Also, accusations of theft and price gouging were made regarding those who helped. Then an article was written by Matthew Carey, a prominent white printer in Philadelphia. While he praised Richard Allen and Absalom Jones for their work (Winch) he suggested that blacks had caused the epidemic, and that some black nurses had charged high fees and even stolen from those for whom they cared. (Carey) This caused a printed rebuttal by Allen to save the reputation of the African American community. Allen wrote for everyone to read about what he personally saw, as he stayed in Philadelphia during the outbreak, and was on the front line helping. Multiple accounts of the helping blacks were noted in his text. Examples of African Americans caring for, treating, and burying the ill are given. In most of these instances no money was taken by the African Americans who stepped up to help. However, Mr. Allen did admit there were a few instances of shady acts by members of his community. Mr. Carey’s accusation of the price gouging and stealing from the ill wasn’t supported by any examples. â€Å"We feel ourselves hurt most by a partial, censorious paragraph, in Mr. Carey’s second edition, of his account of the sickness, in Philadelphia; pages 76 and 77, where he asperses the blacks alone, for having taken advantage of the distressed situation on the people. See more: how to start a narrative essay introduction †(Crowley and Stancliff 283). Since this was printed in multiple editions it appears Mr. Carey did very well financially selling papers, rather than reporting factual information. â€Å"We believe he has made more money by the sale of his ‘scraps’ than a dozen of the greatest extortioners among black nurses. †(Crowley and Stancliff 284). Mr. Allen acknowledges that some blacks have committed crimes, but they have been convicted of their crimes. He also points out Mr. Carey didn’t even stick around to offer any help to the ill; rather, he fled his hometown to help assure his health. Mr. Allen uses some powerful stats in a letter to the Mayor of Philadelphia. The purpose was to show what happened to the beds of the sick after they had passed away and that they were not price gouging. This would counter the claims of Mr. Carey about the blacks stealing from the ill and over charging. The letter was of a chart showing what was paid to the men and women for their service, and what costs were incurred, Then end result was an out pocket loss of –over $27,000 in today’s terms, if the conversion from pounds to dollars chart is correct. Mr. Allen used stats, comparisons, and eye witness accounts to back up his claims that the majority of the blacks who helped during this crisis did so with good intentions, often turning down money offered to them. He also gives a couple of very strong examples of whites taking advantage of the ill. One being of a white woman caring for a couple that both died in one night. She had demanded six pounds, and upon searching bulges in her clothing, she was found in possession of buckles from the gentleman that had passed, among other things. Another account was of four white men that demanded forty dollars just for carrying a coffin downstairs. Lastly, a white woman who was caring for an elderly lady was found with rings, one on her finger and another in her pocket. The Philadelphia mayor praised Allen and Jones as well as the African American community for all their help. All the stats and eye witness accounts of what happened makes Mr. Allen’s account believable and admirable. Mr. Carey was not there for the duration of the epidemic and did not back up his accusations with evidence. This also makes Mr. Allen’s account more convincing. Mr. Allen seems to cover the good and bad accounts of his community. When he examines the whites that helped all that was noted was that of stealing and price gouging. Again, the article Mr. Carey prints doesn’t back up his community with any examples of good deeds. In conclusion, Mr. Allen, the author did his best to defend his community to anyone that read his text. He was very clear, easy to understand, and didn’t seem to present a biased view. He presented his account, both the good as well as the bad, and made me feel like Mr. Carey was not a credible author. Works Cited Crowley, Sharon, and Michael Stancliff. â€Å"A narrative of the proceedings of the black people during the late awful calamity in Philadelphia. † Critical Situations a Rhetoric for Writing in Communities. Lauren A. Finn. Penguin Academics, 2008. 281-95. Print. Carey, Matthew. â€Å"A short account of the malignant fever. † 1794. P. 63 web. Retrieved June 20 2013. Winch, Julie. â€Å"on Jones and Allen’s responses to Carey. † Part 3. Philadelphia, Yellow Fever Epidemics. PBS. org. 1998. Retrieved June 20 2013.

Information on Self Nude Shooting

Group paper > ————————————————- Content Page 1. Introduction 3 2. Definition of self-nude-shooting 3 3. Reasons of the popularity of self-nude-shooting 4-6 4. Social impact of self-nude-shooting 7-8 5. Mindset of posting or sharing the photos/videos 9 6. The views from different parties in the society 10-11 7. Concluding remarks 12 8. References 13 9. Appendix 13Introduction: Definition of self-nude-shooting: Self nude-shooting means individual records his/her nude body via some kinds of medium, such as cameras. And the body is shown on photos or videos. Reasons of the popularity of self-nude-shooting: It is found that self-nude-shooting is popular in Hong Kong. The reasons behind has been classified in 4 areas, which are the advancing technology, culture and people belief, the psychological condition of teenagers altered by puberty, and the satisfaction of sexual desires a nd misunderstandings between couples. * Advancing technologySelf-nude-shooting can be carried out through several medium, such as taking photos or recording videos. When people still need a traditional camera to take photos, they needed to print the photo in shop. Compare to nowadays, people can take pictures or videos simply by a digital camera, webcam or even mobile phones and then upload to their own computer as personal collection. This big progress has encouraged people to make a record on any â€Å"memorable† moments. What’s more, the privacy has increased theoretically, thus, people would like to take photos with less ethical limits. This has explained how self-nude-shooting appears.Furthermore, communicating tool is well-developed and widely used these days. Besides putting photos into photo album, people share their photos online. They can post photos in some photo-sharing websites including blogs such as Xanga and YahooBlog, online albums like Flickr. com and Fotop. Net. If they want more interaction from others, they can even upload to the social networking website like Facebook and MySpace. If people post some striking photos, it can attract others’ attentions and get a higher click rate. Some people may gain fulfillment when people are interested in their photos. Culture and people belief The culture of a society has affected people thinking and belief. It is found that self-nude-shooting is popular especially in teenagers. After our discussion, we think that celebrity endorsement has a major impact on people. Edison Chan, the actor, is one of the infamous self-nude-shooting stars in Hong Kong. Even though the media has a cruel criticize towards his behavior, some of the teenagers view his doing as a heroic manner. Some teens appreciate his bravery. * The psychological condition of teenagers altered by puberty Puberty has a great impact on teenagers’ mental condition.During puberty, gonad will produce varies of hormones such estrogen and androgen which stimulate growth and maturate the reproductive system. What’s more, the hormones also affect the emotion. During adolescence, teenagers are more likely to make friends. They started to view their friends and influencing one another. They hope they are be respected and not to be alone. In order to join the peer group, they are asked to behave similarly. This also creates the peer pressure. For example, if their friends are doing self-nude-shooting, they maybe also asked to do t to show their friendship. * The satisfaction of sexual desires and misunderstandings between couples Teenagers are usually curious about the opposite sex. Therefore, their lovers may be the first sources to explore the sex directly. It is found that the people tend to think that showing-off good sexual ability is one way to please their partner. What’s more, during sexual intercourse, they hope they can please their partner by using different positioning in order to make more sexual excitement. However, we think this is inappropriate to seek for prolong healthy relationship.A healthy relationship should build beyond caring and respectful connection. Social impact of self-nude-shooting Teenagers and students: * Affect their attitude towards sex: 1. Immature teenagers or students imitate obscene movements. 2. Some of them trust what they see and hear on the internet without recognize what is really right or wrong. (This is because getting more and more self shoot nude pictures on the internet. They may consider this kind of behavior is normal. ) 3. As self shoot nude pictures are very popular on the internet, they can easily access this information, which affects their attitude towards sex. E. g. ome of the young people want to please their partners are willing to have nude self shooting or even photograph during sexual intercourse. 4. Encourage young people to have casual sex. (This is because those self shoot nude pictures may contain scene s of party sex or having sex with different people. ) Adult: * They imitate the obscene movement from those scenes of self shoot nude pictures or video and photograph others nude without noticing them. To the whole: * Challenge social mores. (China is a country where people are paying a lot of attention to ethics since ancient time especially the relationship between men and women.Couples must have sex in private area and our bodies should not show to the public. ) * Concept of sex has been distorted. (Sex is private. The exposed self shoot nude pictures and videos on the internet may cause illusion of open sex. ) * Infringe upon personal privacy. (Some of those shot are not voluntary or informed. ) * Distortions in gender roles. (Some of the self shoot nude photos and videos may contain homosexual sex shots. ) * As this kind of pictures or videos can be easily seen on the Internet, this affects the lives of others. (This is because not Internet users accept those pictures and video . In the long term: * People may have bad attitude towards sex. They may consider sex is open and casual. * This encourages the development of pornography. * People may get addicted to that pornography. * Social mores are being challenged. Example: Social impact of Edison Chen photo scandal * The scandal has shocked the general public and ignited debate about sexual morality. * The blanket coverage of the local press, their reporting style, and the appearance of photographs has also been met with public complaints to TELA. (TELA suspected that at least two journals violated the Obscene Articles Ordinance. * The images reached China mostly through an image-sharing service on Baidu (Tieba). * Beijing Network News Council (BNNC) held a meeting on 18 February to discuss the â€Å"romantic pictures†, and criticised Baidu for spreading the pictures. * Other web sites that actively discouraged the photo distribution, namely Sohu, Sina and Netease, were praised by BNCC. * People imit ate to take self shoot nude photos and post on the internet. * People imitate obscene movements from those pictures. The mindset of posting or sharing the photos/videos: They want to be care, be loved and be aware.They think that posting or sharing their naked photos or videos can become a hot spot and draw the others attention. People will be notified by their acts and try to find more details about them. Also they can make new friends or attract people with other sex. People will make some comments on their photos or videos and try to make friend with them. It helps reduce their loneliness and gain the identification from other. They want to show off their sex power to the others. The main reason of this action is that they satisfy with their bodies, they want to be praised and admired by the others about their bodies and poses.Also, they try to treat themselves as observers to view back their bodies from the photos. It can be regarded as one of the sexual parahillia: exhibitionis m. They find that this act is exciting, fun and safe. They are proud of their illegalized action. Besides, they think that it’s nothing matter to do this as it is a trend on the Internet, it is also safe when posting their photos or videos on their own blogs with a locked password or no one will recognize them when a nickname or anonymous name is used. Commercial reason. They can find their so call clients after posting their photos and videos on the Internet.Those clients will contact them to undergo sex services. It is well known as compensated dating. They want to fulfill their material satisfaction or gain money by means of compensated dating. The views from different parties in the society: * The public and concerned group: They deem that this act violate the tradition of moral, moral is defined as the restriction of human behaviors and the criterion for right or wrong. People showing their naked bodies to the others wantonly is obviously violating the moral as this act (posting and sharing) will definitely isturb the others, it shows no respect to the public and the naked-photo takers themselves. This kind of irresponsible behavior will badly interfere the next generation. It is easy for the children to imitate teenagers’ and adults’ action. They think that people nowadays (especially teenagers) are gradually becoming too open-minded toward sex. It seems people ignored the proper protection to their bodies. * Teachers and psychologist: Their views are similar to that of the public and concerned groups, some of the psychologists think that the reason for the action owe to the curiosity, excitation and the imitation of the others (e. g. op stars). They deemed that this action cannot prove any true love at all. The partners will be hurt mentally if the photos or videos are posted on the Internet without the consensus of them. * Parents: Parents think that people doing these kinds of behavior can be regarded as a pervert. It is the abnor mal behavior. They wonder why people don’t protect their bodies and wantonly place it online. They find it hard to educate and monitor their children if this behavior becomes a trend. It is easy for the children and teenagers to browse the related websites on the Internet anytime. Thus, much time have to be spent to reeducate them. Students: Students hold different opinions toward this action. Some of the students feel the photos or videos are disgusting and it is too open-minded toward sex. They worry that if this action becomes a trend, they will blind to follow or even they will have a negative impression on friends. (They may suspect that whether their friends had taken the naked photos before. ) However, some of the students deem that it doesn’t really matter if people voluntarily take, post or share their photos and videos. We do not have the right to intervene the others’ private life. Concluding remarks: References: http://blog. lyfhk. net/kavkiskey ttp: //jorliman. homedns. org/f2blog/rewrite. php/read-466. html http://www. singtao. com/yesterday/edu/0105go01. html http://jou. pccu. edu. tw/weekly/weekly1100-09/1102/deep/1102deep01. htm http://intermargins. net/Forum/2003/xiaxin/news/2002Jan-Jun/20020313a. htm http://www. 3boys2girls. com/viewthread. php? tid=203656&extra=page%3D1&page=13&sid=NRjkDQ http://hk. knowledge. yahoo. com/question/question? qid=7008022100122 http://jou. pccu. edu. tw/weekly/weekly1100-09/1102/deep/1102deep01. htm http://www. tcmer. com/Newscentre/shui/200802/8693. html http://news. ifeng. com/opinion/200804/0401_23_471731. shtml

Succeeding as an African Student at Michigan Tech and Beyond Essays

Succeeding as an African Student at Michigan Tech and Beyond Essays Succeeding as an African Student at Michigan Tech and Beyond The African student organization hosted a panel discussion with professors, graduate, and undergraduate students, which I attended and really liked. The event was entitled Succeeding as an African Student at Michigan Tech and Beyond and occurred on October 10th, in Fisher 104. African students were invited to share and get information regarding the African experience throughout higher education in the United States. The panelists sat in front of the room and started by sharing their stories. They told the audience where they had been (in terms of schools), what difficulties they encountered in adapting, staying motivated, and culture shock. Afterwards, graduate students and professors proceeded to explain strategies to go about graduate school, such as being close to adviser, avoiding to get involved in conflicts inside the department, working as hard as possible because Africans may not be judged on same standards, taking care of documents to remain lawfully in the country, etc. Finally, they started to answers the audiences questions in debate-like fashion. The event was highly productive and informative, but it was the less formal tone, which made it a special event. Since all of the people present were African there was a sense familiarity, which broke any ice standing in the way. Everybody seemed confortable and asked innumerous questions leading to an extension of the event, which ended around 45 minutes past its expected time. The down side was that even though a significant number of students were there, it could have benefited more people had they attended. It may have a been a matter of under advertising or simply a matter of lack interest by the general African student community, but the event had the potential to enrich many more peoples academic and social experience in the U.S. Also, it could have been slightly longer since the discussions were so highly beneficial.

The Burst of the Bubble Called Internet Research Proposal

The Burst of the Bubble Called Internet - Research Proposal Example After several years since its release to the hands of the private and public sectors, it has created a worldwide sensation most especially to the business sectors. This event is called the internet bubble. The internet bubble or sometimes called dot-com bubble was a historical event which became so much blatant during the kick off of the new millennium. It was marked by the creation of groups of internet companies which failed to last for a lengthier time. Because of the wide popularity of the internet, the tremendous increase of stocks, individual speculation in stocks, and easy access on venture capitals were the most significant factors which contributed to the bursting of the internet bubble. Because of these factors, many internet companies disregarded the codes of ethics in business, standard business models and the like; rather, they gave focus on catching more internet users into their sites and increasing their market shares. This system, however, failed and brought about th e hiatus on development during the commencement of the new millennium. Online businesses suffered the long drawn out recession in terms of development. Many online ventures and businesses disappeared from the online map and halted from pursuing their business careers. What were the major causes that contributed to the burst of this... The vast number of online companies paved the way to heavy competition between them. They move in and invest in a faster manner with less caution, therefore, taking more risks in doing so. Furthermore, the low rates of interest added up to the increase of start-up capitals which motivated many to engage themselves in this kind of business. The worst part of this is that even though these companies have potentially good ideas and concepts regarding their business, they also failed in doing so because the dot-com concept is still new in the market. The notion of these investors is that they could get more than what they have given so what they did was spend and invest hoping that it would pay-off a hundredfold. But unfortunately, time proved them false because instead, they had a pretty big loss and during that time, they only relied on venture capitals and initial public offerings (Spector, 2000).

Oxford castle development Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Oxford castle development - Assignment Example All parties must be aware of financial budgets, regulatory controls and legal constraints. All goals and needs of the clients must be met. Challenges may arise due to different interests of the project partners. Public sector bodies hold the interests of the local community [OCC, OC] and/or the site’s heritage [EH, OPT] as their main priority. Commercial businesses such as the TOP on the other hand, are profit driven. The needs of all parties must be balanced by the project manager in order to represent the interests of all clients. The land is owned by OCC and the site of Oxford Castle and the ancient county gaol is an ancient scheduled monument containing 14 listed buildings and structures (English Heritage, 2010a). The project manager must ensure that developers work within the strict heritage guidelines of EH for listed buildings and scheduled monuments (English Heritage, 2010b) and meet the requirements of the land owner [OCC] and other public bodies. Problems may also arise in making listed buildings accessible to the disabled when EH refurbishment regulations conflict with accessibility. Funding must be secured and the roles of financers securely defined to enable the procurement of resources and contractors. The project manager must oversee organization of the project workforce, serving tenders for contracts. Specialist contractors such as historic building surveyors will be necessary to meet public body regulations. The project manager may also oversee the securing of tenants for commercial properties. All development contractors and tenants must adhere to all relevant building restraints and regulations posed by public bodies. Manage the entire project planning from inception to finish. The project schedule, budget and any anticipated future needs, foreseeable obstacles and resultant project alternatives must be planned in the preliminary stages. Budget authorization cycles/finance release